Key+Findings


 * Key Findings in Personality Theory **

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Dr. Philip Zimbardo - [|www.heroicimagination.org] Mark Richardson - markrichardson2010@knights.ucf.edu

**Julian Rotter’s Internal vs. External Locus of Control Theory**

Over the centuries, there have been many personality theories posited to try and qualitatively and quantitatively measure the human personality and its many dimensions. One such modern theory concerns Julian Rotter’s internal vs. external locus of control theory, which is extremely popular with personality theorists, and whose methodology has been utilized thousands of times in contemporary studies of personality.

According to Hock (2009) Julian Rotter’s theory fundamentally pits two paradoxical dispositions of human personality against each other, stated as internal vs. external locus of control (para. 2, p. 191). Individuals with an internal locus of control believe that the actions, behaviors, and choices that they make will determine the state of their lives and the direction thereof (Hock, 2009, p. 191). The polar opposite of this disposition would be individuals with an external locus of control, who generally believe that the situations that they are faced with in life are largely due to chance, fate, or luck (Hock, 2009, p. 191). At the core of Rotter’s theory is the assertion that people develop either disposition beginning in early childhood as a function of social development which then continues throughout the lifespan (Hock, p. 192). Rotter came up with a qualitative questionnaire that over the years has been shown to have high predictive validity.

Rotter devised a test simply called the //IE//, [internal vs. external] that is composed of two opposing word phrases that a participant has to choose from (Hock, 2009, p.193). All participants are instructed to choose the stated phrase that they most agree with, told that choosing a response does not particularly affect any type of scoring, and that the respondent cannot choose both choices (Hock, 2009, p. 193). Each corresponding phrase that a participant checks off either denotes an internal locus of control, or an external locus of control. To prevent the Rosenthal effect or administrator bias, fillers [uncorrelated statements] are used to increase the validity of the test (Hock, 2009, p.193). The results of these tests when appropriated over many psychopathological personalities and other personalities whose patterns are more in line with a bell shaped distribution of normal behavior are not surprising.

Rotter’s studies found that gamblers for instance who have an internal locus of control are more prone to make safer bets than those who have an external locus of control (Hock, 2009, p. 194). This result should be intuitive as a gambler with an external locus of control with the belief that luck and chance determine positive outcomes will take riskier bets hoping for that big hit, ﻿even if counterintuitive to odds (Hock, 2009, p.194). In the area of persuasion, Rotter’s studies showed that individuals with an internal locus of control were able to persuade their peers more effectively than those with an external locus of control in regards to fraternity and sorority systems (Hock, 2009, p. 195). The pattern of efficacy continues with Rotter’s study of smokers. His studies revealed that smokers were disproportionately external, and that internals were more likely to be able to quit the habit (Hock, 2009, p. 195). The pattern continues on studies of achievement and motivation. Students that scored high on the //IE Scale// indicating an internal personality were prone to be more academically motivated, with structured goals such as going to college and wanting to be successful (Hock, 2009, p. 195).

Rotter’s research and theory is intuitive and clear. All his studies reveal that people with an internal locus of control tend to suffer less from psychopathology, feelings of helplessness, despair, and depression. Internals are people that inherently believe that the choices that they make in life affect outcomes and more importantly that they can change their behavior to live healthier lives. In direct contrast, externals believe that they have little control over what occurs in their lives and that they are subjugated by forces beyond their control via their socioeconomic status, supervisor at work, or psychological impairment just to name a few examples. Rotter was careful to make the point that at certain points in life an individual may face circumstances from an external focus such as being laid off from a job or contracting a fatal disease (Hock, 2009, p.199). It is extraordinarily dangerous for an individual to have an extreme external locus of control. Someone who really believes they have no control over any aspect of their life, or thinks that life is simply a crapshoot is bound to suffer mentally and physically. The author of this work has a saying that states Rotter’s theory in simplistic terms namely, “that if you do not live your life, life will live you” (Richardson, 2011). Think..

**Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Personality**

One cannot in good conscious have a discussion about personality theory without mentioning the most prolific, erudite, and renowned psychiatrist of the early 20th century, the great Sigmund Freud. The following is a brief synopsis of Freud’s theory of human personality.

In Freud’s early days of conceptualizing and pondering the nature of personality he came up with three core precepts of personality being the conscious, preconscious, and subconscious (Hergenhahn, 2009, p.531). The conscious activities are those that an individual is actively aware of, preconscious activities are those that one can become aware of with minimal effort, and unconscious activities are those that are repressed and can only come to the surface with great effort (Hergenhahn, 2009, p.531). Freud than explained the aforementioned principles as the id, ego, and superego respectively.

The conscious id is composed of man’s core instincts being hunger, thirst, and sex (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 531). Individuals are consciously aware of these innate instincts and are driven by them, seeking immediate and instant gratification (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 531). Freud referred to the resulting impetus as libidinal energy that could only be satisfied through reflex action or wish fulfillment (Hergenhahn, 2009 p. 531). Reflex actions would be associated with autonomic responses such as sneezing or as a reaction to painful stimuli (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 531). Wish fulfillment according to Freud is the imagined, consciously aware object that will satisfy an existing need (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 531). Freud referred to the activities of the id as primary processes because they lie at the core of man’s nature but are irrational, illogical and only seek to be satisfied (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 531). It is not rational to have sex at any given moment when the urge arises or to act ﻿aggressively when a pertinent stimulus is present, so the ego is present in the psyche to monitor the impulsive id.

The ego is the mediator between the id and the external environment (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 532). It is the function of the ego to look for realistic outlets for the id that are not just conjured or strictly imagined (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 532). These mental processes known as secondary processes are an essential component of consciousness, the purpose being to modify the aggressive, avaricious, and unquenchable urges of the id. The ego looks for appropriate environmental stimuli to satisfy the urges of the id that will result in the least resistance and negative recourse (Hergenhahn, 2009, p.532). The last component of the Freudian personality is the superego which completes the balance of the conscious and unconscious, which if not present would reduce man to that of the average beast (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 532).

The superego is the moral component of consciousness that balances the id and ego through trial and error experience. An example would be the newborn baby that sees a bottle of milk on a hot stovetop, touches it, and recoils in pain. This experience would be retained by the superego and would monitor the urges of the id if exposed to a similar dangerous stimulus (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 532). As a child progresses through development, the superego is sharing a symbiotic relationship with the id and ego resulting in synthesis through parenting resulting in socialization (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 532). This process continues and guilt results from actions that the ego may find to be appropriate, but are morally repressed through the superego (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 532). It is the conflict of these components of personality that can result in what Freud in his day referred to as hysteria, contemporarily known as mania.

When World War I began, Freud and others were deeply disturbed by the amount of sheer violence and death taking place all over the planet. Freud was so vexed that he came up with two additional components of personality associated with love (passion) and death. He coined the term eros as a secondary term for libido and sex energy, contrasted with thanatos which is the death instinct (Hergenhahn, p. 533). When the death instinct is directed from an internal disposition, the results can be suicide, masochism, cutting, and other forms of self-mutilation (Hergenhahn, p. 533). The results of this instinct being projected strictly towards others is intuitive; genocide, mass murder, torture, and extreme malice. As a result of these concepts, Freud came to the correct conclusion that aggression is an innate and key component to the human personality (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 533).

** Carl Rogers' Theory of Personality **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 130%;">Carl Rogers is well known for his theory on personality. He was urged to develop a theory after years of conducting therapeutic sessions with clients. Carl Rogers believed that all people were born with the desire to be good people. In his book, //Client-Centered Therapy,//he stated his “most complete” theory in a chapter titled “A Theory of Therapy, Personality, and Interpersonal Relationships, as Developed in the Client-Centered Framework.” (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 593). In this theory he developed the following ideas: the actualizing tendency; organismic valuing; conditions of worth; several theories under the umbrella of positive regard; and the real self.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 130%;">The actualizing tendency is defined as, “the built-in motivation present in every life-form to develop its potentials to the fullest extent possible” (Boerre, 2006). Summarily, this means all living creatures (including the ecosystem) have the innate desire to be the best they can be and reach their full potential. Any person who utilizes the actualizing tendency to its fullest, will become a completely fulfilled person (or creature). To make this theory a reality, people have to follow the organismic valuing process. This idea can be compared to the overall process of evolution (survival of the fittest) in that there is tendency to instinctively know what is good and not good. A person will naturally gravitate towards what is good and avoid things that aren’t good for them. If a person (or any living creature) goes against their instincts, it could prove to be a downfall in their search for self-actualization.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 130%;">Of the natural instincts, Rogers believed that there was an in-born need for positive regard; which includes love, affection, nurturing and warmth. If these things are received <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 130%;">(from birth), Rogers believes no issues will arise (Hergenhahn, 2009 p. 594). However, often conditions are placed on self-worth. A child has to be obedient in order to receive a reward. Or a child must complete a task before he can use the restroom or receive something to eat. This is known as conditions of worth. In other words, we are not allowed to fulfill a basic need until a condition is met. The worst of this is the idea that a child may only receive the so desperately needed affection if they behave or act a certain way. Giving this conditional positive regard, Rogers warns, can be detrimental to the child becoming their full self. Instead, a child will develop and become an adult who acts the way society expects them to and not necessarily be true to their real self. This person then becomes incongruent because they continually ignore their own desires. Rogers still places value on others' influence in the way a person develops, but still maintains that first and foremost, a person must be true to themselves.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 130%;">For a person to be fully functioning, Rogers feels several things must happen. First, a person must receive unconditional positive regard which involves showing, “complete support and acceptance of a person no matter what that person says or does” (Cherry, n.d.). In other words, regardless of what a person thinks or feels or how they act, a positive attitude and complete acceptance must be given. They must also have openness to experience, existential living, organismic living, experiential freedom and creativity, acknowledging their feelings and being open to new ideas and change (Boerre, 2006). Existential living includes being fully involved in the present without concerns over the past or anxiety for the future. Organismic trust is the idea that one follows his true inner feelings and doing what instinctively feels right. Experiential freedom is associated with free will. This term has been coined as, “the freedom to choose among alternatives” (Eastern Illinois University, n.d.). In other words, a person makes a choice and owns it. And finally, being creative allows a person to contribute to the world around them.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 130%;">The following story summarizes Carl Rogers' general idea of how a personality develops. "During a vacation weekend some months ago I was standing on a headland overlooking one of the rugged coves which dot the coastline of northern California. Several large rock outcroppings were at the mouth of the cove, and those received the full force of the great Pacific combers which, beating upon them, broke into mountains of spray before surging into the cliff-lined shore. As I watched the waves breaking over these large rocks in the distance, I noticed with surprise what appeared to be tiny palm trees on the rocks, no more than two or three feet high, taking the pounding of the breakers. Through my binoculars I saw that these were some type of seaweed, with a slender "trunk" topped off with a head of leaves. As one examined a specimen in the interval between the waves it seemed clear that this fragile, erect, top-heavy plant would be utterly crushed and broken by the next breaker. When the wave crunched upon it, the trunk bent almost flat, the leaves were whipped into a single line by the torrent of water, yet the moment the wave had passed, here was the pant again erect, tough, resilient. It seemed incredible that it was able to take this incessant pounding hour after hour, day after night, week after week, perhaps, for all I know, year and year, and all the time nourishing itself, extending its domain, reproducing itself; in short, maintaining and enhancing itself in this position which, in our shorthand, we call growth. Here in this palm-like seaweed was the tenacity of life, the forward thrust of life, the ability to push into an incredibly hostile environment and not only hold its own, but to adapt, develop, and become itself." – Carl Rogers (Robbins, n.d., para 2).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Mark Richardson & Joyce Hall